Case study
The South African system of 'apartheid' is well known as an example of institutional racism, where the ruling government made laws that discriminated against people because of the colour of their skin. For many years there had been rules limiting the rights of black citizens, but the apartheid system was formalised in 1948 when the white National Party came into power. Racial segregation was introduced in all areas of life, from public toilets and transport to public institutions and the education system. Rules also stated where black people could live and work.
Black people were resistant to the new rules and the limitations on their rights, but when they tried to protest the government banned all opposition groups and organisations. The resistance organisations carried on working in hiding, but people were arrested if they were discovered. After the Soweto uprising of 1976, when thousands of pupils, demonstrating against Afrikaans as a compulsory school subject, were brutally shot, unrest began to spread over the whole country.
For many years other countries refused to trade with South Africa in protest at their discriminatory system, which led to the South African economy declining. Eventually in 1989 the last president of the old South African government, F. W. de Klerk, openly admitted the failure of apartheid policies. Finally negotiations began that led to the first elections where both black and white citizens being able to vote, held in 1994. Nelson Mandela, who had been imprisoned for 27 years for his part as a leader of the anti-apartheid movement, was elected as president.